Introduction: Why Compare Then and Now?

In the history of Islam, few figures are as revered by the masses as Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (may Allah have mercy on him), whose life was dedicated to the service of Allah and the defense of the Muslim ummah. Known for his piety, humility, and commitment to justice, Salah al-Din’s legacy is more than just a story of battles and conquests; it is a lesson in the power of unity, faith, and righteous leadership. In an era of fragmentation and foreign threats, he revived the spirit of Islamic brotherhood, uniting the Muslim lands and reclaiming Jerusalem, the blessed al-Quds, from the Crusaders.

Today, the Muslim world faces challenges strikingly similar to those of Salah al-Din’s time—external influences, political divisions, and struggles over sacred lands. By reflecting on the strategies and reforms that Salah al-Din implemented, we can draw valuable lessons from them which can then be applied to our own time. His approach to governance, rooted in justice and service to Allah, offers insights into how Muslims today might work toward a future of strength, unity, and resilience. This article explores the geopolitics of Salah al-Din’s era through an Islamic lens, drawing parallels to current events and highlighting how his legacy can inspire and guide the ummah toward achieving its highest ideals in the face of modern challenges.

Setting the Stage: Fragmentation and Foreign Influence

The political landscape of Salah al-Din’s time was shaped by centuries of shifting power, regional conflicts, and internal divisions within the Muslim world. After the early unity of the Rashidun Khilafah, the ‘Abbasid Khilafah rose to power in 750 AD, establishing Baghdad as a center of learning, culture, and governance that spanned much of the Muslim world. However, by the 10th century, ‘Abbasid control began to weaken as various factions and dynasties sought autonomy, eroding the once-unified Khilafah.

The ‘Abbasid decline was intensified by the rise of the Fatimid and Buyid dynasties, both Shi’ah-led powers that challenged Sunni ‘Abbasid authority. The Fatimid Khilafah emerged in North Africa during the early 10th century as an Ismai’li Shi’ah state and gradually expanded its influence, establishing a rival Khilafah with its own capital in Cairo. The Buyids, a Twelver Shi’ah dynasty originating from the Daylamite region, seized control of Baghdad in 945 AD, reducing the ‘Abbasid caliphs to mere figureheads and stripping them of much of their power. These competing Shi’ah dynasties not only created sectarian divides within the Muslim world but also fueled internal instability, weakening the Muslim world’s ability to respond to outside threats.

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This fragmentation set in motion the emergence of local Sunni dynasties, such as the Seljuks, who sought to restore Sunni power and unify Muslim lands under their leadership. In 1055 AD, the Seljuks took control of Baghdad, assuming the role of protectors of the ‘Abbasid Khilafah and reasserting Sunni authority over the region. Although this restored a measure of unity, the Seljuk Empire itself was not immune to internal divisions, as various Seljuk rulers claimed independent authority in different regions. Smaller emirates and principalities also arose, each with their own local interests and loyalties, further fragmenting the political landscape.

The result was a landscape of rivalry and division, with the ‘Abbasids struggling to reassert central authority amid the rise of independent dynasties. This disunity weakened the Muslim world’s ability to respond to the Crusaders, who exploited these divisions in order to establish their own states in the Levant, which included control over Jerusalem. Many Muslim leaders were preoccupied with regional rivalries rather than a unified defense against this external threat, allowing the Crusader presence to expand with minimal resistance.

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Modern Parallel: Today, the Muslim world faces a similar landscape of division and foreign influence, particularly in the Middle East. The 20th century witnessed the end of the Ottoman Khilafah, the last Khilafah that had for centuries united Muslim lands. Following World War I, the Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France divided the former Ottoman territories into artificial nation-states with borders being drawn up to serve European interests rather than those of the region. The Balfour Declaration, issued by Britain in 1917, supported the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, leading to ongoing conflicts over Jerusalem and exacerbating tensions within the region.

The decline of the Ottoman Khilafah along with Western interference in the region led to further fragmentation, as colonial powers installed governments that aligned with their interests, often disregarding the religious and cultural unity of Muslim societies. In many cases, these puppet governments promoted secularization, aiming to diminish Islam’s influence in political and public life. Reports such as the RAND Corporation’s strategy on secularizing the Muslim world highlight a continued push to limit Islam’s influence by promoting secularism, liberal reform, and localized national identities over a unified Islamic identity.

The effects of these historical and modern interventions are still felt today, with Sunni-Shi’ah tensions fueling conflicts in Syria, Iraq, Yemen, and beyond. Countries like Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Iran, and Egypt often pursue competing agendas, sometimes in direct opposition to each other, rather than focusing on a collective strategy for the region’s shared interests. The Muslim world remains vulnerable to external influence from major powers, including the United States, Russia, and European nations, each seeking to advance their own strategic objectives in the region.

Just as Salah al-Din recognized the need to overcome local rivalries to reclaim Jerusalem and defend the ummah, today’s Muslim-majority countries face a similar need for unity and collective strategy so as to protect their interests and sovereignty. The lesson from this period in Islamic history underscores the reality that a strong and unified front, built on shared values and mutual cooperation, is essential for confronting both internal challenges and external pressures.

Cultural and Educational Reforms as Catalysts for Unity

Salah al-Din’s success was not merely a result of military might; it was deeply influenced by a broader intellectual and cultural revival that sought to unite the ummah through education, spirituality, and loyalty to the state. This transformation was largely driven by the visionary reforms of Nizam al-Mulk, the vizier of the Seljuk Empire, who recognized that only an educated and unified society could withstand both internal divisions and external threats.

Nizam al-Mulk’s key contribution to this unity was the establishment of the Nizamiyyah schools, a network of madrasahs designed to promote not only religious knowledge but also loyalty to the state and a harmonious balance between worldly affairs (dunya) and spiritual matters (din). Nizam al-Mulk sought to create a generation of scholars and leaders who were well-versed in both the religious sciences and the practical knowledge necessary for governance, law, and administration. He aimed to ensure that his students would serve the state with integrity, drawing on Islamic values of justice, governance, and service to the greater good of the ummah.

Moreover, Nizam al-Mulk emphasized the importance of Tassawuf (Sufism), which played a key role in his educational system. Tassawuf instilled in students the values of inner discipline, ethical leadership, and a deep connection with Allah—qualities that aligned well with Nizam al-Mulk’s vision of creating both pious and loyal subjects. By incorporating Sufi teachings alongside formal Islamic jurisprudence and philosophy, he ensured that students would have a spiritual foundation that would guide them in both their personal and political lives.

The educational system was not just about producing administrators or military leaders—it also served as a defense against ideological threats that had emerged within the Muslim world. Under Nizam al-Mulk’s guidance, the Nizamiyyah schools attracted some of the most brilliant scholars of the time, including Imam al-Ghazali, who became a prominent teacher and intellectual force within this network. Imam al-Ghazali, renowned for his defense of Sunni orthodoxy, played a key role in countering dangerous ideologies that threatened the unity of the Muslim world. He engaged with and refuted ideas from non-Muslim religions, Batini Shi’ah doctrines, and Greek philosophy, all of which sought to challenge the established Sunni tradition. Through his works and teachings, al-Ghazali helped preserve the integrity of Islamic theology and philosophy, ensuring that future generations of Muslims would have the intellectual tools to navigate and defend against these challenges.

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This intellectual and spiritual revival through education laid the groundwork for the rise of leaders like Nur al-Din Zinki and Salah al-Din, who were not only skilled military leaders but also deeply committed to the principles of justice, loyalty, and unity that had been fostered in the educational institutions of their time. Their ability to unite the Muslim world and rally people from diverse regions to defend the sacred city of Jerusalem was, in large part, a result of the shared intellectual and spiritual foundation that had been cultivated in these madrasahs.

Modern Parallel

Today, the Muslim world faces a similar intellectual and ideological fragmentation, often fueled by external pressures and colonial influences. The legacy of colonialism has left many Muslim-majority countries with secular education systems that often prioritize Western ideals over Islamic values. This is evident in the modern-day reports, like those from RAND, which advocate for the secularization of the Muslim world and the promotion of ideologies that challenge traditional Islamic norms—particularly concerning gender roles, family structure, and religious identity. The RAND Corporation and other Western think tanks have long pushed for the modification of Muslim societies in ways that undermine core Islamic values, often framing them as obstacles to progress.

In response to these ideological challenges, many contemporary scholars and da’wah movements have taken up the mantle of intellectual defense. Figures like Ahmed Deedat, Zakir Naik, Israr Ahmed, and organizations such as Tablighi Jama’ah have played an essential role in defending and promoting orthodox Sunni Islam. The Tablighi Jama’ah, in particular, focuses on personal reform, encouraging Muslims to return to the basics of Islam and strengthen their faith.

These modern intellectual and grassroots leaders have engaged with various ideologies—ranging from secularism and atheism to critiques of Islam and other Abrahamic faiths—by offering reasoned, theological, and philosophical responses that counter non-Islamic worldviews while reinforcing the foundations of Islamic belief. At Muslim Skeptic, we are constantly trying to develop content to counter anti-Islamic narratives propagating in mass media.

Just as Nizam al-Mulk’s reforms and Imam al-Ghazali’s intellectual work helped safeguard Sunni orthodoxy against heretical and external influences, today’s Islamic scholars and da’wah movements are responding to similar challenges. They work to preserve Islamic identity and values, ensuring that Muslims are not only able to defend their faith but also engage with the modern world without compromising their religious principles. These efforts represent a modern-day continuation of the intellectual tradition that helped unify the Muslim world during Salah al-Din’s time—reminding us that a strong, well-educated, and ideologically grounded ummah is the key to facing both internal and external threats, just as it was in the past.

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Political Consolidation and the Rise of Unified Leadership

In the century leading up to Salah al-Din’s rise, the Muslim world was politically and geographically fragmented, weakened by internal rivalries and external invasions. However, a series of visionary leaders and reformers emerged with a dedication to unity, justice, and resilience. They transformed the fractured landscape, setting the stage for a unified Muslim resistance against the Crusaders. This period of consolidation involved not only military campaigns but also concerted efforts to establish stable governance, foster loyalty, and instill an overarching sense of purpose within the ummah.

One of the earliest key figures in this consolidation was Nur al-Din Zinki (1118–1174), a principled leader from the Zengid dynasty who saw the need to unify Muslim territories that had been vulnerable to Crusader incursions. Unlike previous rulers who had focused on local rivalries, Nur al-Din pursued a broader vision of a unified front that was capable of defending the holy lands and countering the Crusader kingdoms. He established an administration rooted in justice and Islamic principles, winning the loyalty of his people and earning the respect of scholars. Through his effective governance, Nur al-Din inspired others to join his cause, transcending tribal and regional divisions and establishing a mission that was as much about defending Islam as it was about politics. His revival of jihad as a spiritual and military effort mobilized the ummah, creating a sense of shared duty that rallied support across the region.

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After Nur al-Din’s death, Salah al-Din inherited this legacy and continued the mission of unification. As ruler of Egypt and Syria, Salah al-Din consolidated Muslim territories through strategic alliances, political diplomacy, and a commitment to justice. Salah al-Din’s leadership, deeply rooted in Islamic values, emphasized mercy, forgiveness, and humility—even towards former adversaries—which earned him admiration both within and outside of the Muslim world. His administration, known for appointing capable and loyal officials, was characterized by justice and stability, ensuring that his territories were well-governed and the people felt a sense of security. Salah al-Din’s work culminated in his successful campaign to retake Jerusalem in 1187, a victory that became emblematic of unity and resilience.

Modern Parallel

The decline of the Ottoman Khilafah, once a unifying force for the Muslim world, left the Middle East and North Africa divided and vulnerable to colonial ambitions. Following World War I, agreements like the Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Balfour Declaration facilitated Western control, redrawing borders and establishing puppet governments, dismantling any hopes for a unified Muslim polity.

The imposed secularism of figures like Mustafa Kemal in Turkey and similar leaders in other parts of the Muslim world forced the adoption of Western secular ideals, sidelining Islamic governance and undermining religious identity. Throughout the 20th century, many Muslim-majority nations faced ideological and political fragmentation, first divided by the Cold War and then destabilized by the Global War on Terror, both of which served as platforms for foreign influence, control, and even direct occupation under the guise of countering extremism.

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Today, the Muslim world has been witnessing a growing desire for self-determination and a revival of Islamic principles in governance. The Taliban’s return to power in Afghanistan is viewed by some as a reassertion of indigenous rule and a rejection of foreign influence, resonating with a broader call for self-governance rooted in Islamic principles. This marked the first time in decades for the Muslim world to counter colonial Western powers. Additionally, rising trade and military partnerships between Muslim countries, as well as the rising call for a unified Khilafah, show an emerging network of mutual reliance aimed at creating a more self-sustained Muslim bloc.

These developments resemble the efforts of Nur al-Din and Salah al-Din to build a unified, resilient Muslim world by consolidating political power, fostering loyalty, and emphasizing justice and Islamic values. Like the leaders of Salah al-Din’s era, today’s Muslim leaders and grassroots movements are fighting against ideological fragmentation, colonial residue, and Western pressures. The increasing cooperation and resistance to secularization reflect a renewed commitment to the principles that helped unify the Muslim world in Salah al-Din’s time, reminding us that unity, justice, and a return to Islamic identity are as essential today as they were then.

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Jerusalem as a Symbol of Unity and Struggle

Throughout Islamic history, Jerusalem (al-Quds) has held profound religious, cultural, and political significance for the Muslim world. Jerusalem, the location of al-Aqsa masjid, one of Islam’s holiest sites, has been a focal point of worship, unity, and reverence. During Salah al-Din’s time, the city symbolized a broader struggle for dignity, sovereignty, and religious freedom, especially after the Crusaders seized control in 1099. Their brutal conquest was marked by the massacre of Muslims, Jews, and even Christians who did not align with Crusader doctrine—a violent rupture in the long tradition of pluralistic and tolerant rule that Muslims had fostered in the region.

For Salah al-Din, reclaiming Jerusalem went beyond a mere political ambition; it was a spiritual mission and a call to unify the Muslim ummah in the face of foreign dominance. The struggle to liberate Jerusalem inspired Muslims across different regions and dynasties to transcend internal rivalries and join forces for a common cause. This unity culminated in the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Salah al-Din’s forces defeated the Crusaders, paving the way for Jerusalem’s peaceful liberation. His actions upon entering the city exemplified mercy and justice—allowing Crusaders and civilians to leave unharmed and protecting the city’s sanctity for all faiths. Salah al-Din’s liberation of Jerusalem thus became a symbol of resilience, unity, and faith in the face of overwhelming challenges.

Modern Parallel: Today, Jerusalem remains a central symbol of resistance and identity for Muslims worldwide, as the city and its surrounding areas once again face conflict, displacement, and desecration. Since the establishment of Israel in 1948, Palestinians—both Muslim and Christian—have faced escalating violence, displacement, and restrictions, particularly in Gaza, the West Bank, and around al-Aqsa masjid. Israel’s military actions and aggressive settlement expansion in pursuit of establishing a “Greater Israel” have targeted Muslim and Christian communities alike, sparking global protests. As during the Crusader occupation, the modern era has seen massacres and forced removals, which have galvanized Muslims and non-Muslims alike to call for justice and religious freedom in Jerusalem. Even international bodies, such as the South African International Court of Justice, have condemned Israel’s human rights abuses, reflecting a growing global outcry.

Despite their weaker funding and military resources, many Muslim countries have taken bold actions to counter this aggression. Iran has developed missile technology capable of penetrating Israel’s Iron Dome, while Yemen has blocked off ships traveling to and from Israel, signaling a willingness to protect al-Aqsa even at great personal cost. In an unprecedented show of solidarity, Saudi Arabia and Iran have formed an alliance, with Saudi Arabia declaring its intent to counter any American forces that attempt to intervene in Iran. These actions, along with widespread demonstrations and the Boycott, Divestment, Sanctions (BDS) movement, are united efforts to resist the oppression that threatens Jerusalem’s sanctity and peace.

The situation in Jerusalem today mirrors the Crusader period, where a foreign power’s occupation led to widespread suffering and upheaval. But just as Salah al-Din’s era inspired Muslims to unite, the current struggle over Jerusalem has sparked alliances, protests, and resistance across the Muslim world and beyond. Today, al-Quds continues to be a unifying symbol, reminding the ummah of its duty to protect and honor sacred lands. For Muslims globally, the fight for justice in Jerusalem has become a renewed call for unity, as communities rally to defend their shared identity and faith, inspired by the lessons of Salah al-Din’s era.

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Legacy and Lessons: What Can We Learn Today?

The legacy of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi and his contemporaries continues to reverberate across the Muslim world, offering invaluable lessons for contemporary Muslims who seek to reclaim dignity, unity, and strength. Salah al-Din’s success in uniting a fractured Muslim world and his subsequent victory in liberating Jerusalem is not merely a tale of military triumph but also a story of the power of faith, leadership, justice, and vision. His life provides timeless principles on the importance of moral leadership, the pursuit of knowledge, and the essential role of justice in both governance and warfare.

One of the key lessons from Salah al-Din’s leadership is the idea of unity in the face of division. In his time, the Muslim world was fragmented into various rival factions and dynasties. Despite these divisions, Salah al-Din and his mentor Nur al-Din Zinki recognized that the unity of the ummah was paramount to confronting external threats, particularly the Crusaders. They transcended personal or sectarian rivalries, focusing on a collective goal—the liberation of Jerusalem and the preservation of Muslim identity. This lesson is particularly relevant today, as the Muslim world faces a wide range of political and social challenges, from internal divisions to foreign interference. The example of Salah al-Din teaches us that, even in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds, Muslims must unite around shared values of faith, justice, and the common good.

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The importance of moral leadership is another powerful lesson that Salah al-Din’s legacy provides. Throughout his campaigns, Salah al-Din was known for his humility, integrity, and sense of accountability. He ruled with piety, often spending his nights in prayer, and he sought to establish a just and compassionate system of governance. His leadership was not driven by personal ambition or power but by a sense of duty to protect the faith and welfare of his people. In today’s world, where leadership is often motivated by power, wealth, or influence, the example of Salah al-Din reminds us of the importance of ruling with justice and compassion, guided by the principles of Islam. His refusal to engage in unnecessary violence, especially when recapturing Jerusalem, also teaches us the importance of mercy, even in times of conflict.

Furthermore, Salah al-Din’s focus on education and knowledge was pivotal to his success. His efforts to establish schools that promoted both religious and worldly knowledge helped to cultivate a generation of leaders, scholars, and warriors who were equipped with the tools needed to preserve and expand the Muslim empire. Today, as Muslims face ideological battles against secularism, materialism, and extremism, the need for an education system that nurtures both religious understanding and intellectual development has never been more critical. The lessons from Salah al-Din’s era urge us to focus on holistic education, one that not only addresses the spiritual needs of Muslims but also empowers them in the fields of science, technology, and governance.

Today, the Muslim world faces challenges not dissimilar to those faced by Salah al-Din. The ummah remains fragmented, politically weak, and vulnerable to foreign interference. The continued occupation of Jerusalem and the suffering of the Palestinian people serve as painful reminders of the injustices that Salah al-Din sought to rectify. However, just as he managed to unite a fractured Muslim world through faith and justice, there are signs of hope today. The increasing political and military alliances between Muslim-majority countries, such as the Saudi-Iran rapprochement and cooperation between Türkiye, Qatar, Pakistan, and Malaysia, show that there is potential for the Muslim world to rise from its divisions and come together for shared goals.

Additionally, grassroots movements across the Muslim world are increasingly advocating more and more for the restoration of Islamic governance based on justice, mercy, and the rule of law, reflecting Salah al-Din’s leadership style. From Islamic revival movements like Tablighi Jama’ah, to da’wah movements led by figures such as Zakir Naik, Ahmed Deedat, and Dr. Israr Ahmed, Muslims today are working to counter ideologies that undermine Islamic values. These movements emphasize the importance of piety, ethical leadership, and justice, similar to the values upheld by Salah al-Din.

Finally, the ongoing struggles for Palestinian rights, the growing BDS movement, and the increasing calls for boycotts of Israeli products are modern echoes of the resistance Salah al-Din led against foreign oppression. Despite the military and political challenges, the spirit of Salah al-Din’s era lives on in the efforts to safeguard Jerusalem, the rights of the oppressed, and the dignity of the Muslim ummah.

Salah al-Din’s legacy reminds us that Islamic unity, just leadership, and commitment to faith and knowledge are the pillars on which future success must be built. While the geopolitical landscape may have changed, the core principles that allowed Salah al-Din to triumph—faith, unity, justice, and the defense of sacred rights—remain as relevant and necessary as ever. The lessons from his life provide a guiding light for Muslims today, urging them to build on their shared values, reclaim their dignity, and work toward a future in which justice and peace reign, just as they did in the age of Salah al-Din.

The success of Salah al-Din did not occur within a vacuum. It took several people with a long term vision to bring about the right level of education and unity. Just like the people of his time, we too must operate at every level and every sector to bring about the success of the ummah.

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